妇女的安全土地权被认为对于实现可持续发展目标(SDG)至关重要,尤其是消除贫困和结束饥饿和性别平等(目标1、2和5)。在通过头衔来确保妇女土地权利方面取得了进展,但是妇女面临的挑战需要更加强大的干预措施,以确保她们可以就土地利用做出决定并从土地中获得收益。这些包括更加公平的法律以及为妇女的培训和能力建设。安全的土地权利可以提升整个社区,并使世界更接近实现可持续发展目标。

国际社会现在完全认识到确保妇女土地权利的必要性。这可持续发展目标,全球的发展蓝图包括妇女的土地所有权和安全的任期权作为消除贫困的指标(目标1),结束饥饿(目标2)和性别平等(目标5)。国家达成的第一个国际土地治理标准和原则必威官网亚洲体育关于国家粮食安全的背景下,关于土地,渔业和森林任期的负责任治理的自愿指南必威官网亚洲体育, call upon states to “ensure that women and girls have equal tenure rights and access to land, fisheries and forests independent of their civil and marital status.” Regionally, the African Union, for example, has declared a goal of到2025年,所有注册土地中有30%以女性的名字命名。Policies and interventions on发展中国家的土地所有权和土地注册increasingly mandate or promote joint titling of household land in the names of both spouses or registration in the name of women individually.

Land titles are often used as a proxy for women’s land tenure security. But while getting land registered in a woman’s name is important, evidence demonstrates that focusing on titling alone—whether individually or at the household level—may not necessarily lead to greater tenure security for women. It can instead do just the opposite.

为了确保任期安全,发展界,政策制定者和从业者必须扩大针对妇女行使土地权利时内部和外部约束的干预措施。

这一评论强调了妇女在确保土地权利并确定解决她们的方法方面面临的挑战。它为政策制定者,发展机构,捐助者,土地权利非政府组织,从业者和研究人员提供了土地权限景观的快照,可以为妇女土地权利提供政策,干预,倡导和研究。它描述了确保妇女任期的好处和单独的表权陷阱,其中包括国家倡议和土地所有权的替代方案,以确保妇女的任期安全。这一评论是基于先前的世界资源研究所(WRI)研究的基础,随后将在今年晚必威官网手机版些时候进行WRI报告,该报告探讨了在统称土地上确保妇女权利权利的条件。

确保妇女土地权利的好处

对妇女土地权利的倡导源于这笔收益的重要证据。这些好处包括improved well-being for women and their families, women having a greater say in household decisions, better child nutrition, and higher children’s school enrollment and health investments. Research also shows that secure rights to land提高妇女在社区中的地位,并赋予她们更有效地参与在社区集会中,并在社区治理机构中担任职位。必威官网亚洲体育也有证据表明妇女是不太容易受到家庭暴力的影响当他们拥有土地或土地安全的所有权时。

土地权利为妇女提供丧偶和离婚的对冲,或其他事实上,他们成为家庭负责人或家人的主要养家糊口。Secure land rights also create incentives for long-term investments, such as soil conservation, for subsistence farmers and farm workers. This results in increased productivity and makes the land more resilient to climate change.

现在,许多国家都在其宪法中获得性别平等,并制定了保证男女平等土地权利的法律。国家政府,国际发展机构和非政府组织越来越多地采取行动确保妇女权利在土地再分配和土地注册计划中;以前,这些计划通常是有利于男性的。这些动作的例子包括Bolivian government’s initiative为了增加根据土地法(Ley No. 1715,Servicio nacio nacione de Reforma agraria)的土地所有权的数量,并引入了Oromia,Amhara以及埃塞俄比亚的南部国家,民族和人民地区的家庭土地所有权的联合所有权,要求在后两个地区包括两个配偶的照片。在印度尼西亚,作为地震和海啸后的恢复工作的一部分,在2004年摧毁了亚齐省政府启动了联合土地所有权计划那以夫妻的名义签发了土地证书,或兄弟姐妹作为平等所有者。这些土地权干预措施中的大多数都获得了大量的捐助资金。

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标题并不总是等于任期安全

虽然开发计划的增加以正式化妇女土地权利有积极的影响,存在一些疑问,这似乎是强调标题,因为唯一的确保土地权利的意义。正式的名称不一定等同于任期安全和对土地的更大控制。Renee Giovarelli和Elisa Scalise的分析框架例如,在妇女的土地任期安全方面,强调了从土地上获得和受益的能力。这包括管理和做出有关土地使用和转让的决定的机会,并保证这些权利得到了公认并保护挑战。尽管妇女拥有正式的头衔,但许多因素可以阻止妇女意识到土地所有权的全部利益。

农村妇女可能很难要求土地权利。卡门·戴安娜·迪尔(Carmen Diana Deere)和玛格达琳娜·莱昂(MagdalenaLeónDeLeal)土地名称计划的研究在拉丁美洲,说明了妇女遇到的一些障碍。例如,秘鲁的土地所有权计划要求索赔人提供身份文件,例如选民注册卡,妇女不太可能拥有的身份。较高的文盲和语言障碍(尤其是对于可能只会说本地或本地方言的农村或土著妇女来说)的速度较高,这意味着妇女不太可能意识到自己的合法权利或土地所有权计划的存在。在尼加拉瓜,授权联合所有权,一些男人写下了他们的兄弟或儿子的名字,而不是妻子。非正式或普通法工会或一夫多妻制婚姻的妇女,尤其是在不合法认可的情况下,也面临着重要的缺点。这些妇女更有可能被排除在书名或认证过程之外。虽然现在有许多国家合法认识自愿的工会, the process of recognition can be so costly and cumbersome that poor, rural couples do not go through with it. Only a few countries where polygamy is practiced have attempted to legislate the land rights of multiple wives and there areno gender-sensitive titling procedures for polygamous households

lalibela farmers.jpg
埃塞俄比亚的拉利贝拉农民。获得农业土地所有权的妇女可能会面临社会限制,使她们依靠男性进行耕种。与男性农民相比,拥有土地头衔的女性农民面临的限制更大。Rod Waddington/Flickr的照片

获得农业土地所有权的妇女可能会面临社会限制,使她们依靠男性进行耕种。例如,in Ethiopia’s Amhara Region,传统禁止妇女耕作土地的禁令迫使家庭负责人的强迫妇女割让收获的控制,包括大部分收获的妇女,偶尔是前丈夫的耕种者。尽管这些女性具有正式的头衔,但仍会发生这种情况。根据埃塞俄比亚的法律,权限安全是一个使用或拒绝的命题,这意味着拥有土地所有权的妇女太差而无法雇用农场工人或缺乏可用于耕种的男性家庭成员的选择有限。他们经常选择将自己的土地耕种或租用,最终从收获中获得的收益很少,并容易受到非法驱逐的影响。同样,在certain regions of India, particularly in the north, a taboo against women plowing这意味着妇女必须雇用拖拉机或起草动物的男性来耕种土地,通常要求她们提前支付现金。通常认为,通常认为信誉良好的男性农民没有这种对预付款的需求。

习惯规范通常规定,即使共同命名,丈夫也对家庭控股发挥更大的控制权或决策权。重要的农业决策或潜在的销售是由丈夫做出的,即使妻子协调日常管理。在阿塞拜疆, where state land was distributed to all former members of a collective or state farm regardless of gender, women acknowledged that men still make most of the decisions about land. Astudy of six countries in sub-Saharan Africaby Vanya Slavchevska, Ana Paula de la O Campos, and Chiara Brunelli found that in some countries, such as Nigeria, men solely manage more than half of the jointly owned plots, compared to less than a third of the plots that are jointly managed and 19 percent that are managed solely by women. In other instances, in Ethiopia, for example,when a marriage ends in divorce,妇女通常会收到较少肥沃的土地,有时会付出一小笔钱来放弃自己的土地权利。

当妇女的丈夫去世时,她可能会因继承而被禁止习惯性规范。如果财产共同命名,但最初是家庭或氏族土地,family considers itself to have superior rights over the widow, the land will often go to the widow’s sons or other male relatives of her deceased husband. The widow, despite having her name on the title, will be treated like any other family member rather than a rightful owner. Under certain customary practices, the only option available to the widow if she wants to keep the land is to marry a brother-in-law or other close male relative of her deceased husband. Otherwise, she ends up being dispossessed and landless.

Tenure insecurity can also stem from婚姻和家庭法,这有权丈夫管理婚姻财产。这些法律存在于阿根廷,喀麦隆,智利,刚果民主共和国,洪都拉斯,尼加拉瓜和刚果共和国等国家。在这些国家,即使两个配偶的姓名都在财产所有权上,丈夫也被视为法律管理员和主要决策者。

研究shows与男性农民相比,那些具有土地头衔的女性农民面临的限制更大。他们获得的技术援助,灌溉,技术以及扩展和信用服务的访问量较小。例如,厄瓜多尔农村发展计划所涵盖的地区的基线评估表明,虽然妇女占农民的21%,但只有15.3%可以使用现代技术,但有12.4%的人获得了信贷,而9.4%的人通过了培训计划。一种食品和农业组织的调查of the United Nations (FAO) of organizations providing extension services (such as training, technology transfer, and agricultural inputs such as improved seeds) in 97 countries reveals that only 5 percent of these resources were directed at women. And while all smallholders have difficulty accessing credit and other financial services, in most countries it is harder for women to do so. The FAO study further shows that the share of female smallholders who can access credit lags 5–10 percentage points behind the rate for men.

希望将头衔用作贷款抵押品的正式头衔的妇女不一定对其含义有清晰的了解,使她们容易损失自己的土地。凯利(Kelly)Askew和Rie Odgaard最近发表了有关坦桑尼亚土地形式化计划的性别影响的研究表明妇女想获得土地头衔,然后利用自己的头衔契据获得信用。但是,这些贷款不会用于投资土地以提高收益率或创办小型企业。相反,这笔钱将用于支付孩子的教育。由于这个原因,许多银行拒绝基于农村土地头衔授予贷款,因此贷款人填补了这一空白。妇女因这些贷款的利率较高而被滞留,并且在贷款期间,教育投资不太可能产生任何货币回报,或者鉴于失业率越来越多,因此根本就产生任何回报。妇女可能最终会偿还她们无法偿还的债务,并冒着被剥夺土地的风险。

冠军与集体任期相反

与仅关注标题有关的另一个重要问题是,个人的头衔与许多土著人民的生活方式背道而驰。作为米斯基塔土著领导人迈尔纳·坎宁安explains, indigenous peoples view their collectively held ancestral lands not just as the basis of their livelihoods and economic security, but also as the center of their identities, culture, and economic and social systems.土著妇女断言that this unique relationship with the land demands that the land be formally secured and held under a communal property framework, while they retain their rights to use and benefit from land as individuals within the community. Indigenous women recognize, experience, and challenge patriarchal traditions that impinge on their rights to land and other resources, and often see individual land titling as counterproductive.

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妇女在苏丹聚集柴火。妇女严重依靠林木产品(例如柴火)的公地。对集体土地的正式认可必须包括妇女继续访问和参与有关公地的决定。由面包拍照/flickr

土著土地权限系统通常涉及社区中个人,家庭或群体所持有的相同土地上的各种用途和权利。根据季节,相同的地块可用于种植粮食作物或放牧牲畜。在某些时候,社区成员可能可以使用此类果树的资源。正式化这些权利可能会导致排除其他合法用户,其利益较少,各种用户之间的冲突以及社会机构的侵蚀。例如,一个程序在肯尼亚牧场的部分地区正式化群体牧场disrupted reciprocal access arrangements between Maasai groups, which were part of their coping strategies during times of drought and other climate challenges. Women lamented subsequent restrictions on access to land for grazing and gathering fuelwood, which increased their daily burdens and led to increased conflicts over trespassing.

当标题形式化排除共同资源时,妇女受到不成比例的影响。Bina Agarwal和其他人长期以来一直建立了它women rely heavily on the commons。公地包括妇女用来履行其家庭责任的公共森林和木片,例如收集水,柴火和饲料供家居用途,以及收集非木制森林产品,例如野生水果,蜂蜜,蘑菇和家庭植物,用于家庭营养和补充生计。这在贫困家庭和较小农业地块的家庭中尤其明显。如果国家认为公地是闲置或边际土地或将其称为公共土地的一部分,则妇女及其社区将失去集体持有土地的不可或缺的好处。但是,即使在公共场所正式公认为社区持有的土地的一部分的情况下,如果妇女被封闭在官方认可的治理机构之外,那么对任期安全的看法或经验也可能会变得较低。必威官网亚洲体育

Rather than individual titling, indigenous women call for full recognition of their collectively held lands. They also want the full inclusion and participation of women in community governance and leadership structures and decision-making forums,whether statutory or customary

土地名称妇女权利安全。

确定有希望的做法

妇女在世界各地的经历表明,任期安全比仅仅是女性的名字更广泛的概念。如果妇女能够从土地重新分配和形式化计划中受益,则必须通过不同行为者的一系列干预措施来解决任期不安全感的来源。

一种good starting point would be to establish gender-equitable normative frameworks, a pivotal role played by the state. These include废除家庭和遗产法中排除妇女的歧视性规定从关于土地的重要决定,例如离婚后继承土地或土地权利。对于居住在统治土地上的妇女,这些性别公平的框架包括recognizing women as full co-owners or members of the communityin their individual capacity, not simply as a member of a household or family that is deemed as the rights holder. Governments can institute gender quotas in land administration bodies like dispute resolution bodies, from the national down to the village level, to increase women’s representation and voice in land governance. This includes membership in communal governance structures in collectively held land. However, asWRI的先前研究节目,性别配额必须伴随着诸如法定人数和投票要求之类的机制,以确保妇女能够有效参与。此外,还必须在土著或社区控制土地上进行保护或保护目标的形式化计划在这些目标与生计需求和实践之间取得平衡妇女及其社区。

此外,土地再分配和形式化干预措施必须将性别公平的结果纳入计划设计和实施措施和程序中。第一步是通过分析法律和习惯框架,当地环境以及妇女不平等现象的分析,以确保计划设计的基础,例如婚姻状况(包括一夫多妻制婚姻和同意的工会),种族,阶级,阶级,习惯,习惯,习惯,习惯,规范宗教,教育,流动性等。有针对性的措施可能包括建立性别桌或焦点,以协调和监控性别目标的进步和实现。例如,埃塞俄比亚的第二级土地认证流程创造了social development officer作为现场团队的一部分。该官员负责确定妇女的需求并在计划的各个阶段解决这些需求。其他措施包括公众意识和信息传播活动,这些活动既针对男女,又旨在帮助他们更好地了解干预的目标以及妇女安全任期的好处;让妇女参与土地分界,边界环境和其他程序进行映射和注册;并确保将妇女的名字包括在共同拥有或家用土地上。

在这一领域的有前途的做法包括将妇女窃取妇女的率领家庭数据收集和与干预有关的公众讨论;将妇女的地位提升为土地认证项目中的平等参与者(例如,赞比亚);并在共同拥有的头衔中包括两位配偶的照片(例如Tanzania埃塞俄比亚), the names of children (as heirs), and a photograph of the whole family (e.g., Zambia). The intervention must also ensure that dispute resolution mechanisms are in place and accessible by women, taking into consideration their lower levels of literacy, time and mobility constraints, and social norms that inhibit them from pursuing justice. Including female members in the local dispute resolution bodies and instituting a gender desk or gender focal point can help support women’s access to justice.

培训孟加拉国农民
一种farmer training session in Bangladesh. After obtaining a land title, women need support such as training on new technologies and production systems to ensure that they benefit from land ownership. Photo by International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center/Flickr

记录或下放土著和集体持有土地的所有权或USUFRUCT权利的干预措施必须确保计划设计及其实施过程对如何在社区中包括妇女和其他边缘化群体以及他们的关注和需求,并说明他们的关注和需求。不这样做可能会导致干预延续现有的性别偏见和内部社会差异practices. For example, the creation of group constitutions or internal bylaws as part of the registration process can serve as an opportunity to review customary norms and governance arrangements that are inequitable to women (e.g.,乌干达Peru).

Finally, to achieve tenure security, the reform process should not be deemed complete after issuance of land titles or certificates to women or the issuance of group titles for collectively held lands. Given women’s limited access to resources, there is a need for解决其生计问题的辅助干预措施。其中包括培训和能力建设,包括有关新技术和生产系统的培训,以及采购生产投入和访问营销设施的帮助。在这方面,非政府组织和妇女组织可以补充政府和发展机构的努力。此外,不仅在所有权方面,而且在任期安全方面的其他方面,使用性别分散指标的研究来衡量妇女土地权利的实现,可以帮助跟踪实现妇女土地权限安全方面的进步。

Securing Land Tenure for Women

当地的证据表明,确保妇女的土地权是实现性别平等的关键。妇女的任期安全是一系列经济和社会福利的催化剂,包括包容性增长,粮食安全,减少贫困以及更民主和韧性的社区。警告是必须正确完成。

Focusing on title or documentation alone, without addressing persistent barriers faced by women, not only misses the mark, but could also end up being counterproductive. Any policy or intervention to secure women’s land rights must also address women’s reality on the ground, including their lack of access to resources and information, unequal status in land and family laws, discriminatory customary norms, and limited ability to claim or enforce rights and seek justice. Examples from around the world of how to provide secure land rights for women vary from simple changes such as adding women’s photographs to the title or certificate to integrating gender outcomes in program design, implementation, and evaluation; improving women’s legal status; and showing evidence that protecting women’s land rights uplifts the entire community. There are considerable benefits to be had from securing women’s land tenure; it is high time it was secured globally.