概要

通过碳税实现美国排放目标提供有关将排放目标机制纳入强大的国家碳税中如何有助于确保预期减少预定的削减的见解。这种机制建立了可预测的方法,可以随着时间的推移适应碳定价计划,以应对减少排放的任何短缺。该报告描述了一个基本的两步过程 - 定期评估是否降低排放量以满足目标,然后进行调整机制,如果减少小于预期。

关键发现

  • 将“排放目标机制”添加到碳税中将有助于确保实现国家排放目标。

  • 这种机制将涉及对温室气体(GHG)排放水平是否过高的定期评估,如果是的话,将确保触发政策变化。

  • 政策变化可能涉及调整碳税率,以减少排放或激活“后台”政策或法规的方式增加政府支出。

  • Emissions targets can be achieved most cost-effectively when a carbon tax is supplemented by complementary policies.

  • 可能补充碳税的政策包括支持低碳创新,鼓励客户节省能源,针对不同排放来源或针对不同政策目标的政策。

  • 排放目标机制和碳税和其他政策的重要性取决于税率和碳税政策的其他细节。

执行摘要

国家碳税将通过提供经济动力来减少碳密集型行为,从而减少美国的温室气体排放。Additional policies and mechanisms alongside a carbon tax can further decrease emissions and improve economic outcomes. This paper, the fourth in a series by World Resources Institute (WRI) on carbon pricing in the United States, provides an overview of how a carbon tax can fit into a broader strategy to achieve national GHG emissions targets by ensuring that emissions targets are achieved with sufficient certainty and by surrounding the tax with complementary policies that enable larger and more cost-effective emissions reductions.

决策者可以将排放目标机理添加到碳税中,以帮助确保满足排放目标。生产者和消费者对碳税的反应无法确定,因此未来的排放水平不确定。一些气候变化政策的拥护者对碳税表示怀必威官网是真的吗疑,因为税收下的排放水平可能高于预期,这危害了国家排放目标。但是,在两个简单的步骤中,决策者可以设计一种机制,可以减轻碳税高于预期排放的问题。

The first step is a periodic evaluation of whether GHG emissions levels are too high, which involves setting the timing and benchmarks by which the emissions trajectory is evaluated.假设地,该政策可以说,如果税收涵盖的年度总排放量高于基准高于基准,例如五年后的4吉甘顿(GT),则排放轨迹太高。为了使对排放结果的控制更大,政策制定者可以选择更频繁的评估,比税收所涵盖的年度排放更复杂的基准,和/或基准测试基准相对接近预期的税收轨迹。相反,如果预计税收将远低于基准,则该机制类似于针对不太可能的高排放结果的保险单。

The second step is a policy change that is triggered when the evaluation deems emissions levels to be too high.这种策略更改可以以多种形式出现,我们将其分为四个类别:

  1. 自动调整碳税率。通过将未来的碳税率提高到最初计划的水平,可以通过提高未来的碳税率来实现更大的减少。Switzerland’s carbon tax does just that, and because 2016 emissions exceeded a benchmark prescribed in the legislation (73 percent of 1990 emissions), the tax rate will increase from $87 to $100 per metric ton in 2018 (Hafstead et al. 2017; World Bank 2017). Alternatively, the adjustments could shift all future tax level upward by a certain percentage, so that, say, a 4 percent annual increase is raised to a 10 percent increase until emissions have fallen below the benchmark trajectory (Metcalf 2009).

    在这种方法下,受监管的实体将需要为未来的多种可能的税收水平计划,但它们仍将从可预测的监管途径中受益;改善监管确定性可以降低合规成本并提高创新(Mordfin 2014)。

  2. 以减少排放的方式增加政府支出。如果排放水平高于预期,则碳税收入也将高于预期。立法可以指示政府机构利用这笔“额外”收入来资助进一步减少温室气体排放的活动;例如,收入可以资助森林和农业实践的变化或捕获甲烷泄漏(Murray等,2017)。与税务计划中的调整不同,此政策变更不会直接影响受监管的实体。类似于上限和交易政策中包含的“偏移计划”,这种方法需要一个市场来获得更多的缓解机会,强大的监控和验证排放减少,这是许多排放源的挑战(Murray等人,2017年)。如果额外收入不足以将排放量减少到所需水平,可能会出现另一个挑战;从理论上讲,决策者可以转移额外的资金,但是这些资金需要从另一种预期用途或增加的债务中转移,这可能会带来重大的政治挑战。
  3. 激活“后台”政策或法规。可以将碳税与替代政策配对,该政策可确保足够的排放减少,并且只有在评估认为太高时才能实施。尽管联邦政府拥有广泛的监管温室气体排放的权力,但当前的联邦法规尚未实现降低的排放,这些排放量大大且确定能达到强大的碳税,这是有用的“后台”的先决条件。因此,后台政策可能需要包括与碳税一起通过的其他政策或法规,例如国家的上限和贸易计划或当前联邦气候法规的更为严格的版本,这可能会大大增加政治障碍必威官网是真的吗通过立法。
  4. 基于新信息修改碳税的简化过程。碳税立法可以包括一个过程,该过程会根据有关气候科学,政策成本和/或其他国家的行动进行定期审查和修订的政策。必威官网是真的吗Aldy(2017)提供了一项详细的提案,通过该提案,美国总统提出的未来碳税水平将在国会中获得加急的“上或降低”投票,而没有修正或诉讼,类似于国会批准贸易协定的程序。根据艾迪(Aldy)的提议,如果总统的建议被投票决定,则现状碳税水平将保留。这种方法为应对不断变化的情况提供了灵活性,但也依靠未来的政府在制定和使用新信息来改善政策方面真诚地采取行动。这些方法都没有完全消除排放效果的不确定性,但是该机制的目的是使各国能够可靠地制定和遵循排放承诺,而不是实现确切的排放结果。

与碳税一起的其他政策可以以具有成本效益的方式进一步减少排放。以下是三个主要类别的政策类别,可以补充碳税,作为实现美国排放目标的更广泛战略的一部分:

  • Policies, regulations, incentives, and infrastructure that support low-carbon innovation.技术进步自然发生在市场经济中,强大而稳定的碳税是鼓励低碳技术创新的一种重要方法。但是,即使达到了碳税,私营部门也将在新兴低碳技术的研究,开发,演示和部署(RDD&D)中投资。投资者更喜欢短期收益和最小风险,他们在很大程度上取决于自己的预期财务收益,而不是从新的和生产性技术的出现中获得的更广泛的社会利益。这些障碍可以通过政府赞助的RDD&D,促进早期技术,法规和基础设施的激励措施来解决这些障碍,以鼓励出现低碳技术。美国联邦政府通过赠款,贷款,补贴以及国家实验室和其他政府办公室的工作参与了RDD&D的各个阶段。尽管如此,大多数专家仍建议显着提高新兴低碳技术的研究和开发(R&D)的资金水平(Newell 2015)。政府应在支持更多成熟的技术方面更加谨慎,以避免“拥挤”私营部门的行动,但有针对性的政策鼓励早期部署(例如,太阳能光伏[PV])和Largescale示范项目(例如,碳捕获和存储[,[,碳捕获和储存)[ccs])具有并将继续对使新兴的低碳技术在具有高碳替代品的水平竞争环境中竞争。
  • 鼓励消费者节省能源的政策。A carbon tax encourages energy savings by increasing the price of energy, but a price signal alone is insufficient to induce consumers to take advantage of all cost-effective opportunities to improve energy efficiency. Consumers often lack incentives that reward long-run energy savings, sufficient information about energy efficiency opportunities, or the means to invest in new equipment (Gerarden et al. 2017). Policies can help to overcome these market barriers by providing information, targeted financial incentives, or technology standards. A wide range of policies are currently on the books to support energy efficiency, including at the federal level (e.g., energy efficiency standards for appliances and equipment, and fuel economy standards for vehicles), at the state level (e.g., 20 states have binding mandates requiring utilities to achieve specified levels of customer energy savings), and at the local level (e.g., cities like Austin, Texas, that mandate home energy audits). Energy efficiency policies that enable emissions reductions or other objectives at a relatively low cost are important complements to a carbon price.
  • 针对“发现”排放或打算实现非气候目标的政策。必威官网是真的吗绝大多数温室气体排放量可以相对轻松地涵盖碳税,包括几乎所有来自能源使用的二氧化碳排放,占美国排放量的80%。但是,与涵盖某些类别的温室气体排放(例如,从化石燃料系统泄漏的甲烷泄漏)相关的行政负担可能足够大,以至于首选替代政策,尤其是在排放源高度分散和减少的情况下,核实。例如,在2016年,环境保护署(EPA)发布了绩效标准,要求石油和天然气生产商减少新设备或改良设备中的甲烷排放,并使用政府能够监控和执行的技术和方法(美国EPA 2016)。旨在实现非气候目标并减少温室气体排放的政策也可以补充碳税。必威官网是真的吗例如,常规空气污染物(如颗粒物)的法规通常会导致大量的温室气体排放减少,因为它们阻止了一项活性(例如,在没有排放控制的发电厂中燃烧煤炭的电力),从而产生两种排放量。

Policies that do not fall into these three categories are less effective complements to a carbon tax if they are likely to involve administrative and regulatory costs without achieving significant climate benefits.In particular, policies may be duplicative if they (1) address the same emissions sources and (2) do not have a major rationale aside from reducing GHG emissions (e.g., addressing a separate market barrier). Indeed, if a sufficiently strong federal carbon tax is implemented, some policies are likely to be partially or fully duplicative from a GHG-reduction perspective.

The benefits of mechanisms and policies alongside a carbon tax depend on the details of the tax.If carbon tax levels are relatively low, it is more likely that an emissions target mechanism will be triggered to achieve a given emissions target. Alternatively, stronger complementary policies may be needed because the carbon tax alone is not “pulling its weight.” For example, with a “weak” carbon tax that insufficiently encourages private sector investments in clean energy innovation, additional government support for RDD&D — from support for basic research to incentives for deployment of emerging technologies — could help fill this gap. On the other hand, if carbon tax rates are sufficiently high to comfortably achieve emissions targets, a mechanism that kicks in when emissions are too high is unlikely to be triggered. Still, even an emissions target mechanism that is never triggered can be an important component of a national climate change strategy—after all, ensuring that emissions targets are achieved without such a mechanism may require higher carbon taxes or additional complementary policies, both of which could impose additional costs on regulated entities and taxpayers.

Assembling a coalition of lawmakers to pass strong federal climate legislation will require policies that stand up to environmental and economic scrutiny.即使在那些倾向于支持碳税的人中,一些有力的声音(例如,环境社区中的许多声音)也会推动更大的排放确定性和税收旁边的其他政策,而其他人(例如,许多行业中的许多人)将推动更大的政策简单性,监管确定性和更少的重复法规。设计一项从两组获得支持的政策将是一个重大的政治挑战。通过将强大的碳税与简单排放的目标机制结合在一起,并有针对性的互补政策组合,重点是碳税有限的领域,决策者可以设计一种国家气候策略,以实现雄心勃勃的排放目标成本效益,这应该赚取成本效益必威官网是真的吗支持所有希望降低气候变化风险的团体。必威官网是真的吗